Self Consciousness Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Self Consciousness Issues - Essay Example The first question is based on the understanding that the level of memory humans rely upon to recall early events in life operates from about the age of three or four years old. Prior to that, the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are not fully developed (Mastin, 2010). If this question, then, is asked of a human, their earliest memory is unlikely to be a recollection from before age three or four. An artificial intelligence machine, however, has working memory activated immediately upon being turned on. I reason that a machine will answer this question with literally their first experience and not with a later one. The second question assumes that machines with artificial intelligence do not experience altered states of consciousness, and therefore do not dream. I suspect they would not be able to describe a dream that would fool me into thinking they are human. I pay attention to my dreams and the dreams of other people, and I have noticed that describing a dream is done in a diffe rent narrative style than describing an ordinary awareness event. Dreams are often fragmentary, have confused chronology, incorporate magically changing imagery, are usually symbolic, may be vague upon recall. Furthermore, AI machines do not experience emotion, so fear would be a foreign experience to them. Even if the machine has been programmed to articulate emotional expression, what a machine would find â€Å"frightening† would no doubt be qualitatively distinct from what a human finds frightening.

IBM Employees Welfare

IBM Employees Welfare Changes that have taken place in the organization IBM has been one of the companies that have been making good progress in the business world. This has been enabled by the strategies that the company has been taking in an effort to create a niche in the market. Operating in one of the emerging sectors in the world of ICT the company has been faced with competition in the market and therefore in the five years it has been carrying out critical evaluation of its operation procedure in order to come up with a more acceptable mode of operation that will help it to cut a niche in the market. (Clegg, 1999) As a result the company has engaged on changes in the workforce relations in order to create an effective working atmosphere for the employees. In this regard the company has realized that the most efficient way to create a competitive workforce only through massive investment in the employee. Employee can help an organization to create a competitive advantage in the market which may become difficult for other organization to replicate. Therefore one of the most important areas that the company has been investing on is in its employee. External influence in the organization In the last 10 years, there have been a lot of changes that have taken place in the organization which has been influenced by external factors. There have been several factors that have been influencing the changes in the organization that have been beyond the control of the organization. These changes have been emanating from the changes in the operation environment. One of the changes that have had a great impact on the industry has been the changes in the external environment. The landscape of technology has been changing and the company has not been left behind. The company has come up with several innovation that are likely to position it in the market in line with other competitors as we entered the new millennium the company came up with a new generation of servers which are all aimed at meeting the changing technology. This was also due to the changes in the demand for the underlying infrastructure that has been supporting e-business which has become the business model of the day. (IBM, 2008f) In the future the change in technology is likely to influence the operation of the company. Since it is operating in a field led by technology, the company is likely to make several changes in its operation in the future in a move that will position it in the market. Change in technology is the most probable external factor that will impact the operation of the organization. The changing concept of corporate social responsibility also had an impact on the company as it become more responsive to the needs of its consumers. As a result the company came up with various CSR activities which were aimed at improving the relationship with its employees. It put in place programs that would help it to respect it employees. The political environment was also changing and the company has to change with it. In this regard there were several rules and laws that were coming in place that were not there before. As a result the company had to adjust its operation and its workforce relations. There have been polices that have been put in place in order to give employees more rights and therefore the company has been forced to rhyme with the changes. Political a and legal changes in the further are likely to impact on the operations of the company in the future as the world moves to more converged world. There have also been environmental factors that have forced the company to enforce several changes in its operation in this regard there has been increasing attention that has been paid on the environment and therefore the company has been adjusting its operation in order to come up with policies that are expected to give respect to the environment. The company has been implementing several eco programs that are aimed at going with the demands on the changes in the environment. Internal influences There have also been several changes that have been implemented in the company in the last 10 years which have all been influenced by internal factors. Changes in the management have been one of the most important factors that have influenced several changes that have taken place in the company. The year 2000 marked a transition in the leadership of the company and it saw the coming of Samuel J Palmisano as the president and the chief operating offices and after two years, he was named the CEO of the company. This saw the exit of Lousi V. Gerstener who was the chairman of the company s up to 2002. The coming of the new CEO saw increase response to the environment factors and also a rise in the Corporate Social responsibility activities by the company. In 2003, the company also undertook an exercise to transfer more the 1,200 employee to IBM I a deal valued $1.1 billion from ABB. Human resources management factors has been another internal influences that has been causing a changing the in the organization. In this regard there have been several changes in the human resource management of the company that have resulted to other changes in its operation. Human resource issues have been given a priority in the organization in line with the changing human resources landscape in most organizations. In the future the human resources are expected to influence several other changes in the organization as well. The direction of the organization is the other factor that has been influencing changes in the organization. The company has come up with new growth strategies that are likely to position it in the changing global business environment and therefore it has carried out several other changes in its management and employee relationship. In next 10 years, the overall strategy of the organization is likely to lead to other several changes in the operation of the company. Employee relationship in IBM The company has come up with a human resource policy which has been integrated in it strategic growth strategy which has given the affairs of the employees a central place in the operation of the organization. As a result the company has been carrying out several strategies which are aimed at enhancing a good working relationship. The company has put in place several initiatives which are all aimed at ensuring that the employees are given their rights. The employee relationship has also been carried out as a part of the CSR activity of the organization. Therefore the company has set up human resource department that is concerned with the welfare of the employee. It has respected the rights of the employee to organization and all the managers have been given a notice on this issue as the most important factor in the human resource management strategy of the company. Therefore the company has been promoting an enabling environment for work in the company and has been encouraging direct communication with the employees. It has held a policy of promoting the welfare of the employees and maintaining a positive working relationship with the employees. There have also been effort that are aimed at fostering the development of the employees as one of the most important factor that can help the organization to come up with a competitive work force. (IBM, 2008d) The changing legal environment has had effects on the workforce relationship the organization. As the legal landscape changes, the company has been moving in line with these changes and therefore it has been putting in place measures that are aimed at ensuring that there is respect of the rights of the employees. It has been complying with the changes that have been taking place in the legal requirements worldwide in regard to the employee and involvement of a third party. (IBM, 2008e) Therefore the company has been putting in place measure that are aimed at ensuing that there is respect of the legal change and the environmental changes that have been taking place in regard to treatment of its employees. At the end of the 1990s the company put in place a policy that scrutinized all it employees even those on the supply chain with an aim of ensuring that there is respect of labor laws in the world. With his change there were several other changes that were made in the human resource department in order to make sure that the company was in line with the demand of the world labor laws. For example the company stopped its supply chain where there was suspicious of use of child labor and unfair treatment of employees. The evolution in technology has not left IBM employees in the cold. There have been several initiative that have been aimed at ensuring that employee share this revolution. Therefore the company has come up with portable computers like lap tops and other which are part of the ergonomics program which is aimed at ensuring the employees finds comfort in their work. Therefore the company has provided its employees with such advanced laptops in order to ensure that there is comfort and productivity for the employees. The company has been providing guidance which is aimed at helping the employees to assess their work environment and it has also been teaching them how to use these devices. It has been giving advanced training on its workforce on the use of these devices and giving them professional support to make it easier for them. These efforts have been directed towards making sure that employees have a good working environment. The ergonomics program was initiated at the turn of the millennium and was continued in 2004 with more focus on communication between employees. Through the use of remote and mobile gadgets, employees can even perform their normal office duties at the comfort of their homes. The company has continued investing in technology in order to enhance its relationship with its employees and in order to come up with a competent workforce. (IBM, 2008a) In line with the changing environment in political health care, the company has come up with incentives to health program which is aimed at ensuring the employee of the company have access to health facility. This was in line with the changing legal requirement of the company to take a more positive role partnership with the government on the health of their employees. Therefore the company has come up with programs that are aimed at ensuring that there is maximum observance of the health of the employees. In the United States the company has been offering Health Living Rebate program. It has also been carrying out several smoking cessation program that award employees who do not smoke with a $ 150 cash rebate. This program has helped to improve the health of its workforce. However the company has been criticized on it police to reduce pensions for the retirees. It has been shown the contribution of the company to the health of its retirees has been decreasing in the recent past. This follows the 2001 initiative which was aimed at cutting the pensions contribution of the company. (IBM, 2008b) The company has given the employee their freedom of association therefore they are allowed to join any union which they want like [emailprotected] This has been in sense of upholding the right of the individuals. This has been one of the most important steps that have helped to improve the relationship between the company and the employees. Currently the company enjoys a warm relationship with the employees. There has been no incidence of employee unrest in the organization. However there have been issues that have been expressed by the human resources department on the cutting of pension contribution by the company. But in general the relationship between the company and the employees is cordial. (IBM, 2008c) Recommendations There are several recommendations that the can be made to the organization in regard to its practice of human resource management. These recommendations are meant to improve the relationship between the organization and its employees. This is in realization that disgruntled employees is one of the worst arsenal that can attach the organization from within and which is likely to lead to underperformance of the word force. Therefore there is need for the organizations to come push for he implementation of the above recommendations. The most important the organist should look at now is the thorniest issue of the pension that has been a cause of dissatisfaction in the employees. Most employees and most workers union have expressed there concern about the way in which the company has been treating the employees especially on matters concerning the workforce and their pensions. Therefore the company should realize that one of the most important factors that it should currently look at is the way in which it will take care of its employee’s pension. The company has to carry out a review of it policy on the pension and come to an agreement with the demands of the employees. The issue of pension has been one of the thorniest issues in the world due to the response that way in which the government has been calling for partnership with the companies in meeting the medical cost of the retirees. It is shameful for any multinational company to have disgruntled retirese as this is likely to have an impact on the culture of the company. Once the retirees express their concerns on the way they have been treated by the company, there is likelihood of having other employee in the company who will also express their concerns which may affect the whole workforce. (Taggart, 2001) In its all branches in the world, the company has also been faced by a thorny issue of lying off its employees. In 2007, the company laid off 1315 workers in United States. There has been a concern with the way in which the company has been rewarding these employees for loss of their livelihood. As such there have been calls from the workers union for the company to make sure that it compensates all those who lose the jobs. There were many complains from the employees who argued that they were given a short notice before their dismissal from their jobs. Therefore it is recommended that the company gives it employees enough time in order to prepare them for any impending lay off. This would give the company credibility on human resource management issue and it will also help to have satisfied employees even if they are laid off. There has also been an issue in the way the company has been carrying out its recruitment. Though it has been working on the point of equity in recruitment there are concerns that have been realized that there are usually disparity in the workforce especially when it comes to the issue of gender balance in the workplace. It has been shown that the recruitment process in the company has also not given the youths enough chance to participate in the workforce and therefore there is a large proportion of the elderly workforce in the company that the young people. This is likely to have a negative impact not only on the society but also on the future of the company since there will always be a succession gap in the leadership and other sections of the company. Therefore it is recommended that the company should come up with a graduate recruitment process that will give young people more chance of participating in the development of the company. This would help the company to come up with a successive generation of workforces. (Hersh, 2000) There has also been an issue of motivation the workforce. Having motivated workforce is one of the most important factors that help an organization to increase its productivity and at the same time increase the productivity of the workforce. In this regard the company needs to come up with a clear program with will give ways in which it will motivate its workforce. The organization should come up with a more defined procedure which will be use to motivate the employee and reward them according to their performance. (Rupert, 2000) Conclusion Employee relation is an important aspect that helps an organization to create a competitive edge in the market. Most of the companies in the world have embarked on programs that are aimed at empowering their employees in order to have a competent workforce. IBM has also come up with several programs that are aimed at ensuring that the company cerates a competitive work force. In this regard it has taken several steps that have been aimed at addressing the welfare of the employees. In the last 10 years that have been many changes that have taken place in the organization that have been influenced by external and internal factors. External factors like the changes that have been taking place in technology have prompted the company to also integrate some technological aspect in the working process of its employees. Therefore it has come up with ergonomics to enhance the productivity the employees. The changes that have been taking place in the legal and political factors have also helped the company to make changes in the management of its workforce. In respect of human rights, the company has streamlined its operation to eliminate labor oppression like use of child labor, unfair working conditions and others not only in its plants but also in its supply chain. However there are some areas of concern that the company still needs to address as far as its relationship with employees is concerned. One of the most critical areas that it need to address is the area of pensions which as been one of the thorny issues in the company. There have been complaints on the way the company has reduced its level of contribution n to the welfare of the retirees. The company also needs to address the area of recruitment and rewarding of employees. References [emailprotected], (2008). IBM: Stop Pay Cuts. Retrieved from http://www.allianceibm.org/ on 9th May 2008 Clegg, S. (1999). Global human resource management issues. London: Sage Hersh, J. (2000). Globalization and social change in workforce. London: Rutledge IBM, (2008a): Employee well-being: Ergonomics. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/people/wellbeing/ergonomics.shtml on 9th May 2008 IBM, (2008b): Employee well-being: work/life balance. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/people/wellbeing/work-life-balance.shtmlon 9th May 2008 IBM, (2008c): Employee well-being: Incentives to health. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/people/wellbeing/incentives-to-health.shtmlon 9th May 2008 IBM, (2008d): Employee well-being: Promoting health and well-being. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/people/wellbeing/promoting-health.shtmlon 9th May 2008 IBM, (2008e): Employee well-being: Workforce Relations. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/people/wellbeing/workforce-relations.shtmlon 9th May 2008 IBM, (2008f): About IMB. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/us/en on 9th May 2008 Rupert, A. (2000). Globalization and employee relations; Routledge Taggart, J. (2001). Multinationals in a new era: international human resource strategy. London: Palgrave

British Mercantilism Essay -- essays research papers

Economic ideas and systems come and go. Many systems have failed and many have succeeded. The British system of mercantilism was actually quite a good system for England. They raked in profits from their colonies. The only problem was that they did not give enough economic freedom to their colonies. At almost every turn, the British tried to restrict what their colonies could do and whom they could trade with. In hindsight, I believe that the British may have been a bit more lenient on their restrictions because the constant prohibitions eventually lead to revolution†¦ England did not directly control its colonies. Instead, they let joint-stock companies control and provide funds and foodstuffs for the colonies. Modern day corporations find their roots in these Joint-stock companies. The joint-stock companies were comprised of a group of entrepreneurs who provided the funds for all the voyages and supplies. The people funding the company usually controlled the colony as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Dominion of New England was set up by English officials to unite the colonies into one defense against the Native   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Americans. It was run by a man named Andros, who began to levy taxes on all the colonists without first getting input from the various assemblies from the colonies. The Dominion of New England was eventually overrun. Andros was being searched for because of the failings of this Dominion, so he took cover and tried to escape the colonies by dressing like a woman. However, his boots gave him away.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The colonists were growing more and more displeased by the economic system the British were forcing on them, and then the Molasses Act came. This Act placed high tariffs on sugar, molasses and rum imported into New England in a effort to prevent colonial trade with the French West Indies sugar islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. British sugar merchants on the islands of Barbados, Antigua and Jamaica had complained to Parliament. The law was enacted to restrict non-British trade and to further enforce the concept that trade was to be done only on British owned ships. In response to this Act, the colonists began to smuggle goods into the colonies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliament also passed a series of Navigation Laws, which further restricted trade from the colonies. Cromwell passe... ...ion and ideas and to build colonial unity, and, in 1774, these committees prepared the way for the First Continental Congress. The representatives at this First Continental Congress, except for a few radicals, had not met to consider independence, but wished only to persuade the British government to recognize their rights. A plan of reconciliation offered by Joseph Galloway was rejected. It was agreed that the colonies would refuse to import British goods until colonial grievances were righted, those grievances were listed in petitions to the king, and the congress adjourned.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The British mercantile system was doomed for disaster from the moment that the colonists set foot on the new continent. At first the British gave the colonists a certain feeling of independence, then they put the collar on and expected the colonists to do everything that they asked them to. What happened in the American colonies is a great example of the line â€Å"Give them an inch, they’ll take a mile.† The British set up the colonies in the idea of making money, which was the whole point behind mercantilism. However, you can’t expect people to kneel down and obey forever. British Mercantilism Essay -- essays research papers Economic ideas and systems come and go. Many systems have failed and many have succeeded. The British system of mercantilism was actually quite a good system for England. They raked in profits from their colonies. The only problem was that they did not give enough economic freedom to their colonies. At almost every turn, the British tried to restrict what their colonies could do and whom they could trade with. In hindsight, I believe that the British may have been a bit more lenient on their restrictions because the constant prohibitions eventually lead to revolution†¦ England did not directly control its colonies. Instead, they let joint-stock companies control and provide funds and foodstuffs for the colonies. Modern day corporations find their roots in these Joint-stock companies. The joint-stock companies were comprised of a group of entrepreneurs who provided the funds for all the voyages and supplies. The people funding the company usually controlled the colony as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Dominion of New England was set up by English officials to unite the colonies into one defense against the Native   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Americans. It was run by a man named Andros, who began to levy taxes on all the colonists without first getting input from the various assemblies from the colonies. The Dominion of New England was eventually overrun. Andros was being searched for because of the failings of this Dominion, so he took cover and tried to escape the colonies by dressing like a woman. However, his boots gave him away.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The colonists were growing more and more displeased by the economic system the British were forcing on them, and then the Molasses Act came. This Act placed high tariffs on sugar, molasses and rum imported into New England in a effort to prevent colonial trade with the French West Indies sugar islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. British sugar merchants on the islands of Barbados, Antigua and Jamaica had complained to Parliament. The law was enacted to restrict non-British trade and to further enforce the concept that trade was to be done only on British owned ships. In response to this Act, the colonists began to smuggle goods into the colonies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliament also passed a series of Navigation Laws, which further restricted trade from the colonies. Cromwell passe... ...ion and ideas and to build colonial unity, and, in 1774, these committees prepared the way for the First Continental Congress. The representatives at this First Continental Congress, except for a few radicals, had not met to consider independence, but wished only to persuade the British government to recognize their rights. A plan of reconciliation offered by Joseph Galloway was rejected. It was agreed that the colonies would refuse to import British goods until colonial grievances were righted, those grievances were listed in petitions to the king, and the congress adjourned.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The British mercantile system was doomed for disaster from the moment that the colonists set foot on the new continent. At first the British gave the colonists a certain feeling of independence, then they put the collar on and expected the colonists to do everything that they asked them to. What happened in the American colonies is a great example of the line â€Å"Give them an inch, they’ll take a mile.† The British set up the colonies in the idea of making money, which was the whole point behind mercantilism. However, you can’t expect people to kneel down and obey forever.

Database Slides on Normalization

Chapter 11 Relational Database Design Algorithms and Further Dependencies Chapter Outline ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 0. Designing a Set of Relations 1. Properties of Relational Decompositions 2. Algorithms for Relational Database Schema 3. Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form 4. Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form 5. Inclusion Dependencies 6. Other Dependencies and Normal Forms DESIGNING A SET OF RELATIONS ? Goals: ? Lossless join property (a must) ? Algorithm 11. 1 tests for general losslessness. Algorithm 11. decomposes a relation into BCNF components by sacrificing the dependency preservation. 4NF (based on multi-valued dependencies) 5NF (based on join dependencies) ? Dependency preservation property ? ? Additional normal forms ? ? 1. Properties of Relational Decompositions ? Relation Decomposition and Insufficiency of Normal Forms: ? Universal Relation Schema: ? A relation schema R = {A1, A2, †¦, An} that includes all the attributes of the database. Every attribute name is unique. ? Universal relation assumption: ? (Cont) ? Decomposition: ? ? Attribute preservation condition: ?The process of decomposing the universal relation schema R into a set of relation schemas D = {R1,R2, †¦, Rm} that will become the relational database schema by using the functional dependencies. Each attribute in R will appear in at least one relation schema Ri in the decomposition so that no attributes are â€Å"lost†. (Cont) ? ? Another goal of decomposition is to have each individual relation Ri in the decomposition D be in BCNF or 3NF. Additional properties of decomposition are needed to prevent from generating spurious tuples (Cont) ? Dependency Preservation Property of a Decomposition: ? Definition: Given a set of dependencies F on R, the projection of F on Ri, denoted by pRi(F) where Ri is a subset of R, is the set of dependencies X > Y in F+ such that the attributes in X U Y are all contained in Ri. Hence, the projection of F on each relation schema Ri in t he decomposition D is the set of functional dependencies in F+, the closure of F, such that all their left- and right-hand-side attributes are in Ri. (Cont. ) ? Dependency Preservation Property of a Decomposition (cont. ): ? Dependency Preservation Property: ? ? A decomposition D = {R1, R2, †¦ Rm} of R is dependency-preserving with respect to F if the union of the projections of F on each Ri in D is equivalent to F; that is ((? R1(F)) U . . . U (? Rm(F)))+ = F+ (See examples in Fig 10. 12a and Fig 10. 11) ? Claim 1: ? It is always possible to find a dependency-preserving decomposition D with respect to F such that each relation Ri in D is in 3NF. Projection of F on Ri Given a set of dependencies F on R, the projection of F on Ri, denoted by ? Ri(F) where Ri is a subset of R, is the set of dependencies X > Y in F+ such that the attributes in X ?Y are all contained in Ri. Dependency Preservation Condition Given R(A, B, C, D) and F = { A > B, B > C, C > D}    Let D1={R1(A,B), R2 (B,C), R3(C,D)} ? R1(F)={A > B} ? R2(F)={B > C} ? R3(F)={C > D} FDs are preserved. (Cont. ) ? Lossless (Non-additive) Join Property of a Decomposition: ? Definition: Lossless join property: a decomposition D = {R1, R2, †¦ , Rm} of R has the lossless (nonadditive) join property with respect to the set of dependencies F on R if, for every relation state r of R that satisfies F, the following holds, where * is the natural join of all the relations in D: (? R1(r), †¦ , ? Rm(r)) = r ? Note: The word loss in lossless refers to loss of information, not to loss of tuples. In fact, for â€Å"loss of information† a better term is â€Å"addition of spurious information† Example S s1 s2 s3 P p1 p2 p1 D d1 d2 d3 = S s1 s2 s3 P p1 p2 p1 * P p1 p2 p1 D d1 d2 d3 Lossless Join Decomposition NO (Cont. ) Lossless (Non-additive) Join Property of a Decomposition (cont. ): Algorithm 11. 1: Testing for Lossless Join Property Input: A universal relation R, a decomposition D = {R1, R2, †¦ , Rm} of R,and a set F of functional dependencies. 1.Create an initial matrix S with one row i for each relation Ri in D, and one column j for each attribute Aj in R. 2. Set S(i,j):=bij for all matrix entries. (/* each bij is a distinct symbol associated with indices (i,j) */). 3. For each row i representing relation schema Ri {for each column j representing attribute Aj {if (relation Ri includes attribute Aj) then set S(i,j):= aj;};}; ? (/* each aj is a distinct symbol associated with index (j) */) ? CONTINUED on NEXT SLIDE (Cont. ) 4. Repeat the following loop until a complete loop execution results in no changes to S {for each functional dependency X >?Y in F {for all rows in S which have the same symbols in the columns corresponding to attributes in X {make the symbols in each column that correspond to an attribute in Y be the same in all these rows as follows: If any of the rows has an â€Å"a† symbol for the column, set the other rows to that same â€Å"aâ €  symbol in the column. If no â€Å"a† symbol exists for the attribute in any of the rows, choose one of the â€Å"b† symbols that appear in one of the rows for the attribute and set the other rows to that same â€Å"b† symbol in the column ;}; }; }; 5.If a row is made up entirely of â€Å"a† symbols, then the decomposition has the lossless join property; otherwise it does not. (Cont. ) Lossless (nonadditive) join test for n-ary decompositions. (a) Case 1: Decomposition of EMP_PROJ into EMP_PROJ1 and EMP_LOCS fails test. (b) A decomposition of EMP_PROJ that has the lossless join property. (Cont. ) Lossless (nonadditive) join test for n-ary decompositions. (c) Case 2: Decomposition of EMP_PROJ into EMP, PROJECT, and WORKS_ON satisfies test. (Cont. ) ? Testing Binary Decompositions for Lossless Join Property ? ?Binary Decomposition: Decomposition of a relation R into two relations. PROPERTY LJ1 (lossless join test for binary decompositions): A decomposi tion D = {R1, R2} of R has the lossless join property with respect to a set of functional dependencies F on R if and only if either ? ? The FD ((R1 ? R2) >? (R1- R2)) is in F+, or The FD ((R1 ? R2) >? (R2 – R1)) is in F+. 2. Algorithms for Relational Database Schema Design Algorithm 11. 3: Relational Decomposition into BCNF with Lossless (non-additive) join property Input: A universal relation R and a set of functional dependencies F on the attributes of R. 1. Set D := {R}; 2.While there is a relation schema Q in D that is not in BCNF do { choose a relation schema Q in D that is not in BCNF; find a functional dependency X > Y in Q that violates BCNF; replace Q in D by two relation schemas (Q – Y) and (X U Y); }; Assumption: No null values are allowed for the join attributes. Algorithms for Relational Database Schema Design Algorithm 11. 4 Relational Synthesis into 3NF with Dependency Preservation and Lossless (Non-Additive) Join Property Input: A universal relation R a nd a set of functional dependencies F on the attributes of R. 1. Find a minimal cover G for F (Use Algorithm 10. ). 2. For each left-hand-side X of a functional dependency that appears in G, create a relation schema in D with attributes {X U {A1} U {A2} †¦ U {Ak}}, where X >? A1, X >? A2, †¦ , X > Ak are the only dependencies in G with X as left-hand-side (X is the key of this relation). 3. If none of the relation schemas in D contains a key of R, then create one more relation schema in D that contains attributes that form a key of R. (Use Algorithm 11. 4a to find the key of R) 4. Eliminate redundant relations from the result. A relation R is considered redundant if R is a projection of another relation SAlgorithms for Relational Database Schema Design Algorithm 11. 4a Finding a Key K for R Given a set F of Functional Dependencies Input: A universal relation R and a set of functional dependencies F on the attributes of R. 1. Set K := R; 2. For each attribute A in K { Compu te (K – A)+ with respect to F; If (K – A)+ contains all the attributes in R, then set K := K – {A}; } (Cont. ) 3. Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form (a) The EMP relation with two MVDs: ENAME —>> PNAME and ENAME —>> DNAME. (b) Decomposing the EMP relation into two 4NF relations EMP_PROJECTS and EMP_DEPENDENTS. (Cont. ) c) The relation SUPPLY with no MVDs is in 4NF but not in 5NF if it has the JD(R1, R2, R3). (d) Decomposing the relation SUPPLY into the 5NF relations R1, R2, and R3. (Cont. ) Definition: ? A multivalued dependency (MVD) X —>> Y specified on relation schema R, where X and Y are both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation state r of R: If two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X], then two tuples t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following properties, where we use Z to denote (R -(X U Y)): ? t3[X] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]. t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]. t3[Z] = t2[Z] a nd t4[Z] = t1[Z].An MVD X —>> Y in R is called a trivial MVD if (a) Y is a subset of X, or (b) X U Y = R. ? ? ? Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form Definition: ? A relation schema R is in 4NF with respect to a set of dependencies F (that includes functional dependencies and multivalued dependencies) if, for every nontrivial multivalued dependency X —>> Y in F+, X is a superkey for R. ? Informally, whenever 2 tuples that have different Y values but same X values, exists, then if these Y values get repeated in separate tuples with every distinct values of Z {Z = R – (X U Y)} that occurs with the same X value. Cont. ) (Cont. ) Lossless (Non-additive) Join Decomposition into 4NF Relations: ? PROPERTY LJ1’ ? The relation schemas R1 and R2 form a lossless (non-additive) join decomposition of R with respect to a set F of functional and multivalued dependencies if and only if ? (R1 ? R2) —>> (R1 – R2) (R1 ? R2) —>> (R2 – R1 )). ? or ? (Cont. ) Algorithm 11. 5: Relational decomposition into 4NF relations with non-additive join property ? Input: A universal relation R and a set of functional and multivalued dependencies F.Set D := { R }; While there is a relation schema Q in D that is not in 4NF do { choose a relation schema Q in D that is not in 4NF; find a nontrivial MVD X —>> Y in Q that violates 4NF; replace Q in D by two relation schemas (Q – Y) and (X U Y); }; 1. 2. 4. Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form Definition: ? A join dependency (JD), denoted by JD(R1, R2, †¦ , Rn), specified on relation schema R, specifies a constraint on the states r of R. ? ? The constraint states that every legal state r of R should have a non-additive join decomposition into R1, R2, †¦ Rn; that is, for every such r we have * (? R1(r), ? R2(r), †¦ , ? Rn(r)) = r (Cont. ) Definition: ? A relation schema R is in fifth normal form (5NF) (or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF)) with respect to a set F of functional, multivalued, and join dependencies if, ? for every nontrivial join dependency JD(R1, R2, †¦ , Rn) in F+ (that is, implied by F), ? every Ri is a superkey of R. Recap ? ? ? ? ? Designing a Set of Relations Properties of Relational Decompositions Algorithms for Relational Database Schema Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal FormTutorial/Quiz 4 Q1) Consider a relation R with 5 attributes ABCDE, You are given the following dependencies: A > B, BC > E, ED > A a) List all the keys, b) Is R in 3 NF c) Is R in BCNF Q2) Consider the following decomposition for the relation schema R = {A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J} and the set of functional dependencies F = { {A, B} > {C}, {A} > {D, E}, {B} > {F}, {F} > {G, H}, {D} -> {I, J} }. Preserves Lossless Join and Dependencies? a) D1 = {R1, R2, R3, R4, R5}, R1={A,B,C} R2={A,D,E}, R3={B,F}, R4 = {F,G,H}, R5 = {D,I,J} b) D2 = {R1, R2, R3} R1 = {A,B,C,D,E} R2 = {B,F,G,H}, R3 = {D,I,J }

Culture, Ethnicity, and Health Care Practices Essay

1. Identify two religious or spiritual practices in which members of the Evans Family may engage for treating hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness. In the text, the Evan’s family is introduced as an African-American family, and members of the Baptist church. Members of this family have been diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness, diseases that the family may attempt to treat through religious of spiritual practices. Daily prayer may be a spiritual/religious practice used by the Evans family to treat the mentioned health conditions. â€Å"African-Americans consider themselves spiritual beings, and sickness is viewed as a separation between God and man† (Purnell, 2003, p. 49). In an attempt to get closer to God, daily prayer would be viewed as a positive aspect to accomplish this, lessen the separation between themselves and God, to improve or abolish the sicknesses. God is viewed as the â€Å"supreme healer†, and the Evans family may also be asking God through prayer for healing to improve the illnesses, and restore their health. Another spiritual practice which may be employed by the Evans family to treat the hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness which they are experiencing involves the laying on of hands. African Americans may hold the belief that diseases can be cured when a person of faith gifted with special healing powers touches the afflicted person. This touch is usually accompanied by prayer. Sometimes, it is believed that â€Å"†¦the laying on of hands is thought to free the person from all suffering and pain, and people who still experience pain are considered to have little faith† (Purnell, 2003, p. 50). It is important that the health care provider be aware of these spiritual practices, their potential effect on the health care plan, to provide culturally competent care. 2. Name two dietary health risks for African Americans. Typical diets for African Americans can reflect the regional cuisine, but there are some foods and types of foods that are considered central to the diet. Salt pork, or â€Å"fat back† is a staple ingredient in many African American’s diet, and reflect the tendency of the diet to be very high in fat, cholesterol, and sodium. This type of diet is associated with high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and diabetes; these conditions do occur at a higher prevalence in the African American population. Another diet related health risk involves the tendency to view people of healthy body weight as being underweight and needing more â€Å"meat on their bones† (Purnell, 2003, p. 47). Even in infancy, it is a common practice to avoid underfeeding by feeding newborn infants liquefied cereal mixed with formula and given through a bottle. â€Å"African Americans believe that giving only formula is starving the baby and that the infant needs ‘real food’ to sleep through the night† (Purnell, 2003, p. 47). These views may lead to a tendency to overeat, and be overweight, which is associated with the increased risks for the health conditions listed above. Health care providers can be in a position to give nutritional information, and recommend resources to assist patients to reduce dietary health risks, while maintaining the spirit of traditional cuisine. A magazine published by a health network directed at African Americans encourages healthier, culturally sensitive changes: Dr. Jones stresses that eating healthy doesn’t mean having to give up favorite foods. It just means preparing these dishes in a healthier fashion. That includes traditional favorites, like soul food—one of the oldest and richest cuisines in America. While it’s always been good for the soul, soul food is usually not so good for the heart†¦But soul food doesn’t have to be bad for you. You can continue to enjoy your ages-old family recipes in a new, health-conscious style by changing your cooking methods (Advocate Health Systems, 2007, p. 2). 3. What historical precedence is there for distrust of â€Å"outsiders† in Appalachia? People in Appalachia are characterized as having a distrust of â€Å"outsiders†, and are often unwilling to share their true thoughts and feelings with them. Part of the historical precedence that contributes to this distrust centers on their prior dealings with authority in the form of the large mining and timber companies. The Appalachian people were exploited by having their land taken by these outside business interests, who then subsequently attempted to control the behaviors of the workers for their own profits. There is a strong reliance on family and community; individualism and self-reliant behavior, and reverences for family lineage are highly valued within this culture. Appalachia has been characterized by poverty and isolation, which can result in cultural lag. There has historically been a limited access to education, as well as less of a valuing of higher education, with an emphasis placed upon learning skills necessary to enter the traditional employment fields and earn a living. These factors encourage the continuing distrust of outsiders. Communication styles reflect a general distrust and unease with â€Å"outsiders†. Materials or oral communication presented at a level that is beyond the understanding of the client may lead one to believe that the provider is â€Å"stuck up† or â€Å"putting on airs† and may add to a general feeling of distrust. Traditional Appalachians may value a large amount of personal distance, direct eye contact, and may value silence. They are often unwilling to communicate true needs in an attempt to be polite. Because of historical inequities with interactions with authority figures, including outsider health care providers, traditional Appalachians may not respond well to teach or instruction that is perceived to be an order; they may be much more receptive to hints and suggestions which solicit the client’s opinions (Purnell, 2003, pp. 73, 74). Because of improved technology, transportation, educational and employment opportunities, and more exposure to outside culture, traditional Appalachia may be changing, and the barriers and distrust of â€Å"outsiders† will be lessened. However, an Appalachian educator notes: The mountains have figured into all of it. The mountains kept us so isolated from the rest of the country and from other people’s involvement in our lives that we developed these characteristics: We are very independent, we are very contented with the places that we live, we are very close to nature, we have a deep sense of a belief in God, and we have a deep sense of being friendly and kind to one another and helping one another, and taking care of everyone else in their needs. And we also have a strong sense of what’s right and what ought to be and a deep mistrust of anyone who’s new, anyone who’s a stranger. We don’t trust change very well and we don’t like change very well (Morgan, 2005, p. 1). 4. What evidence do you see of the â€Å"ethic of neutrality† in this case study? The case study presents a view of the client by using her preferred terms, language, and presents her views in an objective manner. The case study seems to reflect the point of view of Miss Leona, and it respects her unique perspective. The author uses the words of the speaker to explain her reasons for doing things in a way that reflects aspects of the culture. For example, rather than state that Miss Leona may have difficulty reading medication instructions, the author includes the information that she was only educated through the third grade, and states â€Å"She admits not using the salve given to her by Dr. Adi because he told her to apply the salve according to the instructions on the jar† (Purnell, 2003, p. 89). The author does not make any judgments relating to the health related behaviors of the people in the case study. Several elements that illustrate cultural domain concepts are objectively presented. The use of folk medicine is demonstrated, with no evaluation of the home remedies, including the application of a bacon grease poultice to the leg wound. Similarly, the author presents Miss Leona’s own explanations of her illnesses, including her statement that she has â€Å"low blood†, in a subjective manner. The â€Å"ethic of neutrality† is maintained through an objective account of her situation, as experience by the patient alone, within her unique perspective. 5. How might you help Miss Leona eat a more nutritious diet? In the case study, the elderly Miss Leona reveals that she has been diagnosed with a heart disease, which her physician attributes to a high fat diet. She believes that her heart problem is instead related to the recent death of her husband, based in part on the timing of the diagnosis. She has expressed her dissatisfaction with the physician who has diagnosed this condition, because he did not communicate adequately during the visit. Miss Leona reveals that her diet is mainly high fat meat, dairy, and simple starches; she doesn’t mention fruits or vegetables at all. These foods are easy for her to prepare, and readily available. She demonstrates the difficulty in bringing food to her home, because she has to walk up a steep grade and a footbridge to get to her home. She does rely on others to bring her groceries at times, but makes it clear that she values self reliance. In accordance with traditional Appalachian cultural values, Miss Leona would most likely not respond well to being told directly which foods that she needs to eat to stay healthy. Rather, a practitioner would have to engage her in more of an indirect chat that would show knowledge of Miss Leona’s unique situation, and respect her likes and dislikes, and her need for ease of food preparation. The practitioner would also have to address the issue of being able to accept assistance needed to even bring healthy foods into her home, since there are physical barriers present that make carrying heavy groceries up a steep incline, especially with an infected leg wound, and a heart condition, impossible. The practitioner would need to provide the appropriate support needed to help make food choices that Miss Leona would be able to prepare, and enjoy. 6. Describe two taboo views that African Americans may have about pregnancy. Taboos are practices that if done, are likely to result in harm coming to the mother, unborn child, or both in the case of pregnancy-related taboos. There are a few pregnancy taboos regarding photographs that African Americans might have, according to the text. There is the belief that pregnant women should not take photographs, or they may cause the baby to be stillborn. Another cultural belief that may be shared is that a pregnant woman should not have their picture taken, because it captures their soul. There is also a taboo that involves the dangers of purchasing clothing or other items for an unborn baby. This is said to be â€Å"bad luck† for the baby and mother. Baby items are purchased after the child is born to avoid causing harm to or misfortune to the mother or her child. Pregnancy taboos views may be held by African Americans, in addition to other prescriptive and restrictive practices regarding childbearing. The realities of pregnancy are related to many factors. â€Å"African American women usually respond to pregnancy in the same manner as other ethnic groups, based on their satisfaction with self, economic status, and career goals† (Purnell, 2003, p. 48). 7. Identify and discuss views that Dorothy and her parents may have about mental illness and medication. In the case study, Dorothy is a 42 year old African American woman living with her parents who takes medication for a diagnosed of bipolar disorder. African Americans have variations in drug metabolism, particularly of psychotropic medications. They show higher blood levels, experience a faster therapeutic response, and are at more risk for drug side effects. â€Å"Health care professional’ personal beliefs may about a specific ethnic group may account of how the drug is prescribed, and African Americans are at a higher risk of misdiagnosis for psychiatric disorders and ,therefore, may be treated inappropriately with drugs† (Purnell, 2003, p. 48). The Evans family may have seen these medications misused in family members or friends, and may have some negative view regarding the treatment of mental illness. In African American culture, there is a tendency to use medication on an â€Å"as needed† basis; when an illness improves, and the person feels better, she may stop taking the medication. This practice could be very detrimental to medication therapy for bipolar disorder. If Dorothy and her family engage in this practice, she would most likely not have had good responses to medication. Dorothy and her family may therefore have a negative view of the medication’s effectiveness. African Americans often attach a stigma to mental illness, especially since there tends to be a high frequency of misdiagnosis of psychiatric disorders, leading to a distrust of mental health professionals (Purnell, 2003, p. 50). The Evans are a religious family, and they may have prayed and attempted to achieve spiritual healing for Dorothy. When the illness persisted, they may have judged Dorothy as not being faithful enough to receiving healing. With these cultural factors coming in to play, there is a high probability that Dorothy’s illness presents a great challenge within the Evans family. References Advocate Health Systems (2007). How to make your family recipes heart healthy. Advocate Magazine 3(24). Retrieved 6/12/07, from http://www. advocatehealth. com/trin/info/library/ham/win00/trin1. html? fitness Morgan, K. (2005). West Virginia’s Appalachian culture. West Virginia’s Appalachian Music and Literature Resources. Retrieved 6/12/07, from http://www. ferrum. edu/applit/studyg/West/htm/wvcultur. htm . Purnell, L. (2003). Transcultural healthcare: a culturally competent approach. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.